Units and Measurements College Physics Volume-1
Chapter
9
1
Figure
(STScI/AURA),
Introduction
As
Chapter
9
may
1.1 | The Scope and Scale of Physics
Learning By the end of Describe the Calculate Compare Describe
Physics
The Scope of Physics
Take
the
Think,
The
Science
Physics
Chapter
9
This
Figure
Knowledge
Physics
Physics
It
Chapter
11
The Scale of Physics
From
Figure
Order
The
order
which
An
to
scientific
The
The
Chapter
11
diameter
Known
The
How
many hydrogen atoms does it take to stretch across the diameter of the Sun? (Answer: 109 m/10–10 m = 1019 hydrogen atoms) How
many protons are there in a bacterium? (Answer: 10–15 kg/10–27 kg = 1012 protons) How
many floating-point operations can a supercomputer do in 1 day? (Answer: 105 s/10–17 s = 1022 floating-point operations)
In
Chapter
13
Figure
Visit
Building Models
How
Chapter
13
Figure
A
Figure
Chapter
15
The
A
observed
The
The
|
Units and Standards
Learning By the end of Describe how SI base Describe Express
As
Chapter
15
We
Measurements
Figure
Two
Virtually
SI Units: Base and Derived Units
In
Based
ISQ Base Quantity SI Base Unit
Length meter
Mass kilogram
Time second
Table
Chapter
17
ISQ Base Quantity SI Base Unit
Electrical
Luminous
Table
You
quantity
measure
[kg/(m2
quantity
For
the
Check
Units of Time, Length, and Mass: The Second, Meter, and Kilogram
The
The
The
Chapter
17
Figure
The
The SI
Figure
The
The
There
Chapter
19
Figure
Metric Prefixes
SI
Prefix Symbol Meaning Prefix Symbol Meaning
yotta- | Y 1024 yocto- y 10–24 |
zetta- | Z 1021 zepto- z 10–21 |
exa- | E 1018 atto- a 10–18 |
peta- | P 1015 femto- f 10–15 |
tera- | T 1012 pico- p 10–12 |
|
|
| ||
|
| |||
|
| |||
|
| |||
giga- |
G |
109 |
nano- |
n |
mega- | M | 106 | micro- | µ |
kilo- | k | 103 | milli- | m |
hecto- | h | 102 | centi- | c |
deka- | da | 101 | deci- | d |
10–9
10–6
10–3
10–2
10–1
Table
The
Chapter
19
only
103
Incidentally,
As
Another
Example
Using
Restate
Strategy
Since
Solution
Replacing the
1.93
From
find
Significance
It
powers
If
1.1
Check
is
Chapter
21
|
Unit Conversion
Learning By the end of Use
It
1
1000
Let’s
80 m ×
= 0.080
Note
80 m = 8.0 × 101 m = 8.0 × 10−2 km = 0.080 km,
since
Example
Converting
The
Strategy
First
Solution
Calculate
average speed. Average speed is distance traveled divided by time of travel. (Take this definition as a given for now. Average speed and other motion concepts are covered in later chapters.) In equation form,
Average
Time
Substitute
the given values for distance and time:
Average speed = 10 mi
20
=
min
Convert
miles per minute to meters per second by multiplying by the conversion factor that cancels miles and leave meters, and also by the conversion factor that cancels minutes and leave seconds:
Chapter
21
0.50 mile × 1609 m × 1 min = (0.50)(1609) m/s = 13 m/s.
Significance
min
1 mile
60
Check
Be
sure the units in the unit conversion cancel correctly. If the unit conversion factor was written upside down, the units do not cancel correctly in the equation. We see the “miles” in the numerator in 0.50 mi/min cancels the “mile” in the denominator in the first conversion factor. Also, the “min” in the denominator in 0.50 mi/min cancels the “min” in the numerator in the second conversion factor. Check
that the units of the final answer are the desired units. The problem asked us to solve for average speed in units of meters per second and, after the cancellations, the only units left are a meter (m) in the numerator and a second (s) in the denominator, so we have indeed obtained these units.
1.2
Check
what
Example 1.3
Converting
The
Strategy
We
1
so
Solution
7.86
×
×
⎞3
= 7.86
kg/m3
g
cm
103
⎝10−2
(103)(10−6)
Significance
Remember,
Be
sure to cancel the units in the unit conversion correctly. We see that the gram (“g”) in the numerator in 7.86 g/cm3 cancels the “g” in the denominator in the first conversion factor. Also, the three factors of “cm” in the denominator in 7.86 g/cm3 cancel with the three factors of “cm” in the numerator that we get by cubing the second conversion factor. Check
that the units of the final answer are the desired units. The problem asked for us to convert to kilograms per cubic meter. After the cancellations just described, we see the only units we have left are “kg” in the numerator and three factors of “m” in the denominator (that is, one factor of “m” cubed, or “m3”). Therefore, the units on the final answer are correct.
1.3
Check
m,
Chapter
23
Unit
1.4
Check
SM_FORCES
|
Dimensional Analysis
Learning By the end of Find the Determine
The
a
Base Quantity Symbol for Dimension
Length L
Mass M
Time T
Current I
Thermodynamic
Luminous
Table
Physicists
dimensions
Chapter
23
a
for
The
Every
term in an expression must have the same dimensions; it does not make sense to add or subtract quantities of differing dimension (think of the old saying: “You can’t add apples and oranges”). In particular, the expressions on each side of the equality in an equation must have the same dimensions. The
arguments of any of the standard mathematical functions such as trigonometric functions (such as sine and cosine), logarithms, or exponential functions that appear in the equation must be dimensionless. These functions require pure numbers as inputs and give pure numbers as outputs.
If
Example
Using
Suppose
Strategy
One
Solution
We
[πr
since
Similarly,
[2πr]
since
We
Significance
This
Chapter
25
conflated
1.5
Check
expressions
Example 1.5
Checking
Consider
Strategy
By
Solution
There
are no trigonometric, logarithmic, or exponential functions to worry about in this equation, so we need only look at the dimensions of each term appearing in the equation. There are three terms, one in the left expression and two in the expression on the right, so we look at each in turn:
[s]
[vt]
[0.5at2]
All
Again,
there are no trigonometric, exponential, or logarithmic functions, so we only need to look at the dimensions of each of the three terms appearing in the equation:
[s] = L
[vt2]
[at]
None
This
equation has a trigonometric function in it, so first we should check that the argument of the sine function is dimensionless:
⎡at2⎤
[a]
−2 2
⎣
[s] = LT L · T
=
L
The
[v]
⎡ ⎛
s
⎣sin⎝at
⎠⎦
Chapter
25
The
Significance
If
1.6
Check
One
⎡dv⎤
[v]
⎣
Similarly,
⎡ ⎤
⎣∫
By
|
Estimates and Fermi Calculations
Learning By the end of Estimate
On
Many estimates
Chapter
27
To
Get
big lengths from smaller lengths. When estimating lengths, remember that anything can be a ruler. Thus, imagine breaking a big thing into smaller things, estimate the length of one of the smaller things, and multiply to get the length of the big thing. For example, to estimate the height of a building, first count how many floors it has. Then, estimate how big a single floor is by imagining how many people would have to stand on each other’s shoulders to reach the ceiling. Last, estimate the height of a person. The product of these three estimates is your estimate of the height of the building. It helps to have memorized a few length scales relevant to the sorts of problems you find yourself solving. For example, knowing some of the length scales in Figure 1.4 might come in handy. Sometimes it also helps to do this in reverse—that is, to estimate the length of a small thing, imagine a bunch of them making up a bigger thing. For example, to estimate the thickness of a sheet of paper, estimate the thickness of a stack of paper and then divide by the number of pages in the stack. These same strategies of breaking big things into smaller things or aggregating smaller things into a bigger thing can sometimes be used to estimate other physical quantities, such as masses and times. Get
areas and volumes from lengths. When dealing with an area or a volume of a complex object, introduce a simple model of the object such as a sphere or a box. Then, estimate the linear dimensions (such as the radius of the sphere or the length, width, and height of the box) first, and use your estimates to obtain the volume or area from standard geometric formulas. If you happen to have an estimate of an object’s area or volume, you can also do the reverse; that is, use standard geometric formulas to get an estimate of its linear dimensions. Get
masses from volumes and densities. When estimating masses of objects, it can help first to estimate its volume and then to estimate its mass from a rough estimate of its average density (recall, density has dimension mass over length cubed, so mass is density times volume). For this, it helps to remember that the density of air is around 1 kg/ m3, the density of water is 103 kg/m3, and the densest everyday solids max out at around 104 kg/m3. Asking yourself whether an object floats or sinks in either air or water gets you a ballpark estimate of its density. You can also do this the other way around; if you have an estimate of an object’s mass and its density, you can use them to get an estimate of its volume. If
all else fails, bound it. For physical quantities for which you do not have a lot of intuition, sometimes the best you can do is think something like: Well, it must be bigger than this and smaller than that. For example, suppose you need to estimate the mass of a moose. Maybe you have a lot of experience with moose and know their average mass offhand. If so, great. But for most people, the best they can do is to think something like: It must be bigger than a person (of order 102 kg) and less than a car (of order 103 kg). If you need a single number for a subsequent calculation, you can take the geometric mean of the upper and lower bound—that is, you multiply them together and then take the square root. For the moose mass example, this would be
⎛
⎝102
×
= 10
2.5
= 10
0.5
×
≈ 3 × 102
kg.
⎠
The
One
“sig. fig.” is fine. There is no need to go beyond one significant figure when doing calculations to obtain an estimate. In most cases, the order of magnitude is good enough. The goal is just to get in the ballpark figure, so keep the arithmetic as simple as possible. Ask
yourself: Does this make any sense? Last, check to see whether your answer is reasonable. How does it compare with the values of other quantities with the same dimensions that you already know or can look up easily? If you get some wacky answer (for example, if you estimate the mass of the Atlantic Ocean to be bigger than the mass of Earth, or some time span to be longer than the age of the universe), first check to see whether your units are correct. Then, check for arithmetic errors. Then, rethink the logic you used to arrive at your answer. If everything checks out, you may have just proved that some slick new idea is actually bogus.
Example Mass Estimate
Chapter
27
Strategy
We
the
Now
Solution
We
A
Next,
V
Last,
M
Thus,
Significance
To
estimate.
density
How
For practice estimating relative lengths, areas, and volumes, check out this PhET
Chapter
29
|
Significant Figures
Learning By the end of Determine the Describe the Calculate Determine the
Figure
Figure
Accuracy and Precision of a Measurement
Science
The
10.9
Chapter
29
variation
The
Figure
Accuracy, Precision, Uncertainty, and Discrepancy
The
Recall
in.
The uncertainty in a measurement, A, is often denoted as δA (read “delta A”), so the measurement result would be recorded as A ± δA. Returning to our paper example, the measured length of the paper could be expressed as 11.1 ± 0.3 in. Since the discrepancy of 0.1 in. is less than the uncertainty of 0.3 in., we might say the measured value agrees with the accepted reference value to within experimental uncertainty.
Some
Limitations
of the measuring device The
skill of the person taking the measurement Irregularities
in the object being measured Any
other factors that affect the outcome (highly dependent on the situation)
In
Chapter
31
At
Percent
Another
Percent
A
Example
Calculating
A
Week
1 weight: 4.8 lb Week
2 weight: 5.3 lb Week
3 weight: 4.9 lb Week
4 weight: 5.4 lb
We
Strategy
First,
Percent uncertainty = δA × 100%.
A
(1.1)
Solution
Substitute
Percent uncertainty = δA × 100% = 0.2 lb × 100% = 3.9% ≈ 4%.
Significance
A 5.1
We
took
1.8
Check
stopwatch
Uncertainties
Uncertainty
Chapter
31
uncertainties
square
Precision of Measuring Tools and Significant Figures
An
When
cm
and 36.7 cm, and he or she must estimate the value of the last digit. Using the method of significant figures, the rule is that the last digit written down in a measurement is the first digit with some uncertainty. To determine the number of significant digits in a value, start with the first measured value at the left and count the number of digits through the last digit written on the right. For example, the measured value 36.7 cm has three digits, or three significant figures. Significant figures indicate the precision of the measuring tool used to measure a value.
Zeros
Special
significant
Significant
When
For
multiplication and division, the result should have the same number of significant figures as the quantity with the least number of significant figures entering into the calculation. For example, the area of a circle can be calculated from its radius using A = πr2. Let’s see how many significant figures the area has if the radius has only two—say, r = 1.2 m. Using a calculator with an eight-digit output, we would calculate
A
But
A
although
For
addition and subtraction, the answer can contain no more decimal places than the least-precise measurement. Suppose we buy 7.56 kg of potatoes in a grocery store as measured with a scale with precision 0.01 kg, then we drop off 6.052 kg of potatoes at your laboratory as measured by a scale with precision 0.001 kg. Then, we go home and add 13.7 kg of potatoes as measured by a bathroom scale with precision 0.1 kg. How many kilograms of potatoes do we now have and how many significant figures are appropriate in the answer? The mass is found by simple addition and subtraction:
Chapter
33
7.56 kg
−6.052
+13.7
15.208
Next, we identify
Significant
In
1.7 | Solving Problems in Physics
Learning By the end of Describe the Explain Summarize
Figure
Chapter
33
Problem-solving
As
Although
Strategy
Strategy
Examine
the situation to determine which physical principles are involved. It often helps to draw a simple sketch at the outset. You often need to decide which direction is positive and note that on your sketch. When you have identified the physical principles, it is much easier to find and apply the equations representing those principles. Although finding the correct equation is essential, keep in mind that equations represent physical principles, laws of nature, and relationships among physical quantities. Without a conceptual understanding of a problem, a numerical solution is meaningless. Make
a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the “knowns”). Many problems are stated very succinctly and require some inspection to determine what is known. Drawing a sketch be very useful at this point as well. Formally identifying the knowns is of particular importance in applying physics to real-world situations. For example, the word stopped means the velocity is zero at that instant. Also, we can often take initial time and position as zero by the appropriate choice of coordinate system. Identify
exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns). In complex problems, especially, it is not always obvious what needs to be found or in what sequence. Making a list can help identify the unknowns. Determine
which physical principles can help you solve the problem. Since physical principles tend to be expressed in the form of mathematical equations, a list of knowns and unknowns can help here. It is easiest if you can find equations that contain only one unknown—that is, all the other variables are known—so you can solve for the unknown easily. If the equation contains more than one unknown, then additional equations are needed to solve the problem. In some problems, several unknowns must be determined to get at the one needed most. In such problems it is especially important to keep physical principles in mind to avoid going astray in a sea of equations. You may have to use two (or more) different equations to get the final answer.
Solution
The
Significance
After
Check
your units. If the units of the answer are incorrect, then an error has been made and you should go back over your previous steps to find it. One way to find the mistake is to check all the equations you derived for dimensional consistency. However, be warned that correct units do not guarantee the numerical part of the answer is also correct.
Chapter
35
Check
the answer to see whether it is reasonable. Does it make sense? This step is extremely important: –the goal of physics is to describe nature accurately. To determine whether the answer is reasonable, check both its magnitude and its sign, in addition to its units. The magnitude should be consistent with a rough estimate of what it should be. It should also compare reasonably with magnitudes of other quantities of the same type. The sign usually tells you about direction and should be consistent with your prior expectations. Your judgment will improve as you solve more physics problems, and it will become possible for you to make finer judgments regarding whether nature is described adequately by the answer to a problem. This step brings the problem back to its conceptual meaning. If you can judge whether the answer is reasonable, you have a deeper understanding of physics than just being able to solve a problem mechanically. Check
to see whether the answer tells you something interesting. What does it mean? This is the flip side of the question: Does it make sense? Ultimately, physics is about understanding nature, and we solve physics problems to learn a little something about how nature operates. Therefore, assuming the answer does make sense, you should always take a moment to see if it tells you something about the world that you find interesting. Even if the answer to this particular problem is not very interesting to you, what about the method you used to solve it? Could the method be adapted to answer a question that you do find interesting? In many ways, it is in answering questions such as these science that progresses.
Chapter
35
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
KEY TERMS
accuracy
base
base
conversion
dimension
dimensionally consistent
dimensionless
discrepancy
English
estimation
kilogram
law
description,
meter
method
metric
model
order
percent
what
SI
significant
Chapter
37
theory
uncertainty
units
KEY EQUATIONS
A
Percent
SUMMARY
The
Scope and Scale of Physics Physics
is about trying to find the simple laws that describe all natural phenomena. Physics
operates on a vast range of scales of length, mass, and time. Scientists use the concept of the order of magnitude of a number to track which phenomena occur on which scales. They also use orders of magnitude to compare the various scales. Scientists
attempt to describe the world by formulating models, theories, and laws.
Systems
of units are built up from a small number of base units, which are defined by accurate and precise measurements of conventionally chosen base quantities. Other units are then derived as algebraic combinations of the base units. Two
commonly used systems of units are English units and SI units. All scientists and most of the other people in the world use SI, whereas nonscientists in the United States still tend to use English units. The
SI base units of length, mass, and time are the meter (m), kilogram (kg), and second (s), respectively. SI
units are a metric system of units, meaning values can be calculated by factors of 10. Metric prefixes may be used with metric units to scale the base units to sizes appropriate for almost any application.
To
convert a quantity from one unit to another, multiply by conversions factors in such a way that you cancel the units you want to get rid of and introduce the units you want to end up with. Be
careful with areas and volumes. Units obey the rules of algebra so, for example, if a unit is squared we need two factors to cancel it.
The
dimension of a physical quantity is just an expression of the base quantities from which it is derived. All
equations expressing physical laws or principles must be dimensionally consistent. This fact can be used as an aid in remembering physical laws, as a way to check whether claimed relationships between physical quantities are possible, and even to derive new physical laws.
Estimates
and Fermi Calculations An
estimate is a rough educated guess at the value of a physical quantity based on prior experience and sound physical reasoning. Some strategies that may help when making an estimate are as follows: Get
big lengths from smaller lengths. Get
areas and volumes from lengths. Get
masses from volumes and densities. If
all else fails, bound it.
Chapter
37
One
“sig. fig.” is fine. Ask
yourself: Does this make any sense?
Accuracy
of a measured value refers to how close a measurement is to an accepted reference value. The discrepancy in a measurement is the amount by which the measurement result differs from this value. Precision
of measured values refers to how close the agreement is between repeated measurements. The uncertainty of a measurement is a quantification of this. The
precision of a measuring tool is related to the size of its measurement increments. The smaller the measurement increment, the more precise the tool. Significant
figures express the precision of a measuring tool. When
multiplying or dividing measured values, the final answer can contain only as many significant figures as the least-precise value. When
adding or subtracting measured values, the final answer cannot contain more decimal places than the least- precise value.
The
Strategy:
Determine which physical principles are involved and develop a strategy for using them to solve the problem. Solution:
Do the math necessary to obtain a numerical solution complete with units. Significance:
Check the solution to make sure it makes sense (correct units, reasonable magnitude and sign) and assess its significance.
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
What
is physics?
Some
have described physics as a “search for simplicity.” Explain why this might be an appropriate description.
If
two different theories describe experimental observations equally well, can one be said to be more valid than the other (assuming both use accepted rules of logic)?
What
determines the validity of a theory?
Certain
criteria must be satisfied if a measurement or observation is to be believed. Will the criteria necessarily be as strict for an expected result as for an unexpected result?
Can
the validity of a model be limited or must it be universally valid? How does this compare with the required validity of a theory or a law?
Chapter
39
Identify
some advantages of metric units.
What
are the SI base units of length, mass, and time?
What
is the difference between a base unit and a derived unit? (b) What is the difference between a base quantity and a derived quantity? (c) What is the difference between a base quantity and a base unit?
For
each of the following scenarios, refer to Figure
1.4
(c)
1.6 Significant Figures
(a)
What is the relationship between the precision and the uncertainty of a measurement? (b) What is the relationship between the accuracy and the discrepancy of a measurement?
PROBLEMS
1.1 The Scope and Scale of Physics
14.
5.1
1.4
The
mass of the Moon: 7.34 × 1022 kg; (f) The Earth–Moon distance (semimajor axis): 3.84 × 108 m; (g) The mean Earth–Sun distance: 1.5 × 1011 m; (h) The equatorial radius of Earth: 6.38 × 106 m; (i) The mass of an electron: 9.11 × 10−31 kg; (j) The mass of a proton:
1.67
1.99 × 1030 kg.
1.7
What
information do you need to choose which equation or equations to use to solve a problem?
What
should you do after obtaining a numerical answer when solving a problem?
Use
the orders of magnitude you found in the previous problem to answer the following questions to within an order of magnitude. (a) How many electrons would it take to equal the mass of a proton? (b) How many Earths would it take to equal the mass of the Sun? (c) How many Earth–Moon distances would it take to cover the distance from Earth to the Sun? (d) How many Moon atmospheres would it take to equal the mass of Earth’s atmosphere? (e) How many moons would it take to equal the mass of Earth?
How
many protons would it take to equal the mass of the Sun?
For
Roughly
how many heartbeats are there in a lifetime?
A
generation is about one-third of a lifetime. Approximately how many generations have passed since the year 0 AD?
Roughly
how many times longer than the mean life of an extremely unstable atomic nucleus is the lifetime of a human?
Chapter
39
Calculate
the approximate number of atoms in a bacterium. Assume the average mass of an atom in the bacterium is 10 times the mass of a proton.
(a)
Calculate the number of cells in a hummingbird assuming the mass of an average cell is 10 times the mass of a bacterium. (b) Making the same assumption, how many cells are there in a human?
Assuming
one nerve impulse must end before another can begin, what is the maximum firing rate of a nerve in impulses per second?
About
how many floating-point operations can a supercomputer perform each year?
Roughly
how many floating-point operations can a supercomputer perform in a human lifetime?
The
following times are given using metric prefixes on the base SI unit of time: the second. Rewrite them in scientific notation without the prefix. For example, 47 Ts would be rewritten as 4.7 × 1013 s. (a) 980 Ps; (b) 980 fs; (c) 17 ns; (d) 577 µs.
The
following times are given in seconds. Use metric prefixes to rewrite them so the numerical value is greater than one but less than 1000. For example, 7.9 × 10−2 s
could
(b)
The
following lengths are given using metric prefixes on the base SI unit of length: the meter. Rewrite them in scientific notation without the prefix. For example, 4.2 Pm would be rewritten as 4.2 × 1015 m. (a) 89 Tm; (b) 89 pm; (c) 711 mm; (d) 0.45 µm.
The
following lengths are given in meters. Use metric prefixes to rewrite them so the numerical value is bigger than one but less than 1000. For example, 7.9 × 10−2 m could be written either as 7.9 cm or 79 mm. (a)
7.59
1.63
The
following masses are written using metric prefixes on the gram. Rewrite them in scientific notation in terms of the SI base unit of mass: the kilogram. For example, 40 Mg would be written as 4 × 104 kg. (a) 23
mg;
The
following masses are given in kilograms. Use metric prefixes on the gram to rewrite them so the numerical value is bigger than one but less than 1000. For example, 7 × 10−4 kg could be written as 70 cg or
700
2.4
The
volume of Earth is on the order of 1021 m3.
What
is this in cubic kilometers (km3)? (b) What is it in cubic miles (mi3)? (c) What is it in cubic centimeters (cm3)?
The
speed limit on some interstate highways is roughly 100 km/h. (a) What is this in meters per second?
How
many miles per hour is this?
A
car is traveling at a speed of 33 m/s. (a) What is its speed in kilometers per hour? (b) Is it exceeding the 90 km/ h speed limit?
In
SI units, speeds are measured in meters per second (m/s). But, depending on where you live, you’re probably more comfortable of thinking of speeds in terms of either kilometers per hour (km/h) or miles per hour (mi/h). In this problem, you will see that 1 m/s is roughly 4 km/h or 2 mi/h, which is handy to use when developing your physical intuition. More precisely, show that (a) 1.0 m/s = 3.6 km/h and (b) 1.0 m/s = 2.2 mi/h.
American
football is played on a 100-yd-long field, excluding the end zones. How long is the field in meters? (Assume that 1 m = 3.281 ft.)
Soccer
fields vary in size. A large soccer field is 115 m long and 85.0 m wide. What is its area in square feet? (Assume that 1 m = 3.281 ft.)
What
is the height in meters of a person who is 6 ft 1.0 in. tall?
Mount Everest,
at 29,028 ft, is the tallest mountain on Earth. What is its height in kilometers? (Assume that 1 m =
3.281
The
speed of sound is measured to be 342 m/s on a certain day. What is this measurement in kilometers per hour?
Chapter
41
Tectonic
plates are large segments of Earth’s crust that move slowly. Suppose one such plate has an average speed of 4.0 cm/yr. (a) What distance does it move in 1.0 s at this speed? (b) What is its speed in kilometers per million years?
The
average distance between Earth and the Sun is
1.5
The
density of nuclear matter is about 1018 kg/m3. Given that 1 mL is equal in volume to cm3, what is the density of nuclear matter in megagrams per microliter (that is, Mg/µL )?
The
density of aluminum is 2.7 g/cm3. What is the density in kilograms per cubic meter?
A
commonly used unit of mass in the English system is the pound-mass, abbreviated lbm, where 1 lbm = 0.454 kg. What is the density of water in pound-mass per cubic foot?
A
furlong is 220 yd. A fortnight is 2 weeks. Convert a speed of one furlong per fortnight to millimeters per second.
It
takes 2π radians (rad) to get around a circle, which is the same as 360°. How many radians are in 1°?
Light
travels a distance of about 3 × 108 m/s. A light-minute is the distance light travels in 1 min. If the Sun is 1.5 × 1011 m from Earth, how far away is it in light-
minutes?
A
light-nanosecond is the distance light travels in 1 ns. Convert 1 ft to light-nanoseconds.
An
electron has a mass of 9.11 × 10−31 kg. A proton has a mass of 1.67 × 10−27 kg. What is the mass of a proton in electron-masses?
A
fluid ounce is about 30 mL. What is the volume of a 12 fl-oz can of soda pop in cubic meters?
A
student is trying to remember some formulas from geometry. In what follows, assume A is area, V is
volume,
V
Consider
the physical quantities s, v, a, and t with dimensions [s] = L, [v] = LT −1, [a] = LT −2, and [t] = T. Determine whether each of the following
equations
s
Consider
the physical quantities m, s, v, a, and t with dimensions [m] = M, [s] = L, [v] = LT–1, [a] = LT–2, and [t] = T. Assuming each of the following equations is dimensionally consistent, find the dimension of the quantity on the left-hand side of the equation: (a) F = ma; (b) K = 0.5mv2; (c) p = mv; (d) W = mas; (e) L = mvr.
Suppose
quantity s is a length and quantity t is a time. Suppose the quantities v and a are defined by v
=
(b)
Suppose
[V] = L3, [ρ] = ML–3, and [t] = T. (a) What is the dimension of ∫ ρdV ? (b) What is the dimension of dV/dt? (c) What is the dimension of
ρ(dV/dt)?
The
arc length formula says the length s of arc subtended by angle Θ in a circle of radius r is given by the equation s = r Θ . What are the dimensions of (a) s,
(b)
Assuming
the human body is made primarily of water, estimate the volume of a person.
Assuming
the human body is primarily made of water, estimate the number of molecules in it. (Note that water has a molecular mass of 18 g/mol and there are roughly 1024 atoms in a mole.)
Estimate
the mass of air in a classroom.
Chapter
41
Estimate
the number of molecules that make up Earth, assuming an average molecular mass of 30 g/mol. (Note there are on the order of 1024 objects per mole.)
Estimate
the surface area of a person.
A
can contains 375 mL of soda. How much is left after 308 mL is removed?
State
how many significant figures are proper in the results of the following calculations: (a) (106.7)(98.2) / (46.210)(1.01); (b) (18.7)2; (c)
Roughly
how many solar systems would it take to tile ⎛ ⎞
⎠
the
(a)
Estimate the density of the Moon. (b) Estimate the diameter of the Moon. (c) Given that the Moon subtends at an angle of about half a degree in the sky, estimate its distance from Earth.
The average
density of the Sun is on the order 103 kg/ m3. (a) Estimate the diameter of the Sun. (b) Given that the Sun subtends at an angle of about half a degree in the sky, estimate its distance from Earth.
Estimate the
mass of a virus.
A
floating-point operation is a single arithmetic operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. (a) Estimate the maximum number of floating- point operations a human being could possibly perform in a lifetime. (b) How long would it take a supercomputer to perform that many floating-point operations?
Consider the
equation 4000/400 = 10.0. Assuming the number of significant figures in the answer is correct, what can you say about the number of significant figures in 4000 and 400?
Suppose
your bathroom scale reads your mass as 65 kg with a 3% uncertainty. What is the uncertainty in your mass (in kilograms)?
A
good-quality measuring tape can be off by 0.50 cm over a distance of 20 m. What is its percent uncertainty?
An
infant’s pulse rate is measured to be 130 ± 5 beats/ min. What is the percent uncertainty in this measurement?
(a)
Suppose that a person has an average heart rate of
72.0
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
80.
⎝1.60
(a)
How many significant figures are in the numbers 99 and 100.? (b) If the uncertainty in each number is 1, what is the percent uncertainty in each? (c) Which is a more meaningful way to express the accuracy of these two numbers: significant figures or percent uncertainties?
(a)
If your speedometer has an uncertainty of 2.0 km/h at a speed of 90 km/h, what is the percent uncertainty? (b) If it has the same percent uncertainty when it reads 60 km/ h, what is the range of speeds you could be going?
(a)
A person’s blood pressure is measured to be
120
Assuming
A
person measures his or her heart rate by counting the number of beats in 30 s. If 40 ± 1 beats are counted in 30.0
±
What
is the area of a circle 3.102 cm in diameter?
Determine
the number of significant figures in the following measurements: (a) 0.0009, (b) 15,450.0, (c) 6×103, (d) 87.990, and (e) 30.42.
Perform
the following calculations and express your answer using the correct number of significant digits. (a) A woman has two bags weighing 13.5 lb and one bag with a weight of 10.2 lb. What is the total weight of the bags? (b) The force F on an object is equal to its mass m multiplied by its acceleration a. If a wagon with mass 55 kg accelerates at a rate of 0.0255 m/s2, what is the force on the wagon? (The unit of force is called the newton and it is expressed with the symbol N.)
Consider the equation
s
where
and
Chapter
43
(a)
A car speedometer has a 5% uncertainty. What is the range of possible speeds when it reads 90 km/h? (b) Convert this range to miles per hour. Note 1 km = 0.6214 mi.
A
marathon runner completes a 42.188-km course in 2 h, 30 min, and 12 s. There is an uncertainty of 25 m in the distance traveled and an uncertainty of 1 s in the elapsed time. (a) Calculate the percent uncertainty in the distance.
(b)
The
sides of a small rectangular box are measured to be 1.80 ± 0.1 cm, 2.05 ± 0.02 cm, and 3.1 ± 0.1 cm long. Calculate its volume and uncertainty in cubic centimeters. When
nonmetric units were used in the United Kingdom, a unit of mass called the pound-mass (lbm) was used, where 1 lbm = 0.4539 kg. (a) If there is an uncertainty of 0.0001 kg in the pound-mass unit, what is its percent uncertainty? (b) Based on that percent uncertainty, what mass in pound-mass has an uncertainty of 1 kg when converted to kilograms?
The
length and width of a rectangular room are measured to be 3.955 ± 0.005 m and 3.050 ± 0.005 m. Calculate the area of the room and its uncertainty in square meters.
A
car engine moves a piston with a circular cross- section of 7.500 ± 0.002 cm in diameter a distance of
3.250
Chapter
43
CHALLENGE PROBLEMS
The
first atomic bomb was detonated on July 16, 1945, at the Trinity test site about 200 mi south of Los Alamos. In 1947, the U.S. government declassified a film reel of the explosion. From this film reel, British physicist G. I. Taylor was able to determine the rate at which the radius of the fireball from the blast grew. Using dimensional analysis, he was then able to deduce the amount of energy released in the explosion, which was a closely guarded secret at the time. Because of this, Taylor did not publish his results until 1950. This problem challenges you to recreate this famous calculation. (a) Using keen physical insight developed from years of experience, Taylor decided the radius r of the fireball should depend only on time since the explosion, t, the density of the air, ρ, and the energy of the initial
explosion,
r
this
)
4.2
The
purpose of this problem is to show the entire concept of dimensional consistency can be summarized by the old saying “You can’t add apples and oranges.” If you have studied power series expansions in a calculus course, you know the standard mathematical functions such as trigonometric functions, logarithms, and exponential functions can be expressed as infinite sums of the form
∞
∑
n
the
n
that
sufficient